An Alternative to Hubble's Law
This site introduces a cosmological model in which the universe is not expanding and stars are represented as spherical stress patterns in a universal ideal elastic medium. The redshift of light from a star is then a characteristic of the stress pattern of the star. This model is aimed at a resolution of the Hubble tension and other problems, without involving dark energy.
The Problem: Tension in the Standard Model
The concept of an expanding universe originated as an explanation for the observed red shift of light from distant galaxies. When Edwin Hubble found that the wavelength of light from certain galaxies is a linear function of their distance from the earth he related this to the velocity of expansion. Hubble's law states that the velocity of expansion increases linearly with the distance from the earth to a galaxy.
This law has been accepted for almost a century but in recent years it has become more and more difficult to justify. Different observations produce different values of Hubble's constant and an apparent acceleration of the expansion has produced the proposition that expansion is powered by a mysterious "dark energy". As more astronomical data is accumulated, more problems arise and more explanations are offered. At the present time many other aspects of theoretical physics are under attack.
The Core Idea of the Hubble Alternative
Isaac Newton was concerned that he could not explain the existence of gravitational force in the vacuum of space, but today we know that the space between stars is not empty (Ref.1). Quantum theory tells us that space throughout the universe is filled with vacuum energy from which particles are generated. Albert Einstein defined space as a flexible entity which reacts with mass and accounts for the force of gravity. A much simpler approach to the nature of space and mass can be found by combining some elements of the above theories.If space is assumed to be an ideal elastic medium which is suffused with radiation energy, radiation pressure can be equated to elastic stress and mass can be related to radiation energy or elastic strain energy by Einstein's law of equivalence. In this ideal medium, light is assumed to travel as a transverse stress wave with no losses and with a velocity which varies with density.
The Mathematical Model
In the ideal elastic medium, it is assumed that spherical stress patterns are formed at particular temperatures. The general form of a spherical stress pattern is found by equating the radial pressure produced by a force of attraction to an opposing radial radiation pressure. To find the characteristics of a particular pattern it is assumed that a proton can be represented by such a pattern, in which case the electron in a hydrogen atom is located at a particular stress in the pattern of the proton.
The characteristics of a proton stress pattern are then found by constructing a mechanical model of the hydrogen atom. In the case of a proton the force in the pattern is electrostatic and the peak force is found to occur at a radius which is close to the charge radius of a proton. One characteristic of the proton pattern is a linear increase in the radial velocity of light with respect to radius.
Similarly, a star may be represented as a spherical stress pattern in which the force is gravitational. Using the observed characteristics of the sun, a representative stress pattern can be found in which the linear increase in the radial velocity of light is identical to that of Hubble's law at an assumed value of the temperature of formation. The equation which replaces Hubble's law includes the mass of a star as a variable which modifies the value of Hubble's constant.
The work which leads to this result is detailed in Ref.2, together with other derived characteristics of the sun. The model suggests that both gravitational and electrostatic forces may be accounted for by the superposition of stress patterns and the derived temperature pattern in the sun offers an explanation for the observed increase in temperature from the centre to the corona.
The work described in Ref.2 used only applied mechanics and Einstein's law of equivalence to establish the characteristics of the stress patterns of both protons and stars.
Ref.1
Ref.2 A Non-Expanding Universe
This booklet is available from the Amazon book store and gives a mathematical explanation of the proposed alternative to Hubble's law. The contents of this booklet are also provided as a pdf file which is opened by the following button.